Definition of the Situation in Sociology

The definition of the situation is what people use to know what is expected of them and what is expected of others in any given situation. Through the definition of the situation, people obtain a sense of the statuses and roles of those involved in the situation so that they know how to behave.  It is the agreed upon, subjective understanding of what will happen in a given situation or setting, and who will play which roles in the action. The concept refers to how our understanding of the social context of where we may be, like a  movie theater, bank, library, or supermarket informs our expectations of what we will do, who we will interact with, and for what purpose. As such, the definition of the situation is a core aspect of social order -- of a smoothly operating society. The definition of the situation is something that we learn through socialization, composed of prior experiences, knowledge of norms, customs, beliefs, and social expectations, and is also informed by individual and collective needs and wants. It is  a foundational concept within symbolic interaction theory and an important one within sociology, generally. The Theorists Behind the Definition of the Situation Sociologists William I. Thomas and Florian Znaniecki are credited with laying the theory and research groundwork for the concept that is known as the definition of the situation. They wrote about meaning and social interaction in their groundbreaking empirical study of Polish immigrants in Chicago, published in five volumes between 1918 and 1920. In the book, titled The Polish Peasant in Europe and America, they wrote that a  person has to take social meanings into account and interpret his experience not exclusively in terms of his own needs and wishes but also in terms of the traditions, customs, beliefs, and aspirations of his social milieu. By social meanings, they refer to the shared beliefs, cultural practices, and norms that become common sense to native members of a society. However, the first time the phrase appeared in print was in a 1921 book published by sociologists Robert E. Park and Ernest Burgess, Introduction to the Science of Sociology. In this book, Park and Burgess cited a Carnegie study published in 1919 which apparently used the phrase. They wrote, common participation in common activities implies a common definition of the situation. In fact, every single act, and eventually all moral life, is dependent upon the definition of the situation. A definition of the situation precedes and limits any possible action, and a redefinition of the situation changes the character of the action. In this final sentence Park and Burgess refer to a defining principle of symbolic interaction theory: action follows meaning. They argue, without a definition of the situation that is known among all participants, those involved wouldnt know what to do with themselves. And, once that definition is known, it sanctions certain actions while prohibiting others. Examples of the Situation An easy example to grasp how situations are defined and why this process is important is that of a written contract. A legally binding document, a contract, for employment or sale of goods, for example, lays out the roles played by those involved and specifies their responsibilities, and sets out actions and interactions that will take place given the situation as defined by the contract. But, its the less easily codified definition of a situation that interests sociologists, who use it to refer to a necessary aspect of all the interactions we have in our daily lives, also known as micro-sociology. Take, for example, riding a bus. Before we even get on a bus, we are engaged with a definition of a situation in which buses exist to serve our transportation needs in society. Based on that shared understanding, we have expectations of being able to find buses at certain times, at certain places, and to be able to access them for a certain price. As we enter the bus, we, and presumably the other passengers and the driver, work with a shared definition of the situation that dictates the actions we take as we enter the bus -- paying or swiping a pass, conversing with the driver, taking a seat or grabbing a hand-hold. If someone acts in a way that defies the definition of the situation, confusion, discomfort, and even chaos can ensue. Sources Burgess, E.W. Introduction to the Science of Sociology. Robert Ezra Park, Kindle Edition, Amazon Digital Services LLC, March 30, 2011. Thomas, William. The Polish Peasant in Europe and America: A CLASSIC WORK IN IMMIGRATION HISTORY. Florian Znaniecki, Paperback, Student edition, University of Illinois Press, January 1, 1996. Edited by Nicki Lisa Cole, Ph.D.

The Reality Of British Television Programs - 1835 Words

When thinking of British television programs, it is impossible for one not to think of the international hit, Doctor Who. Originally debuting in 1963 under the British Broadcasting Corporation, Doctor Who included an upperclass white male playing the lead character along side another white male and two white females. Doctor Who aired during the 1960’s when Great Britain was still recovering from the destruction of World War II and was also facing the reality that they were not the world power they once were. Also, large influx of immigrations were entering Great Britain during this period. Class, gender, and racial prejudices were extremely prevalent within society and Doctor Who was no exception. Yet eventually attitudes change and the producers of the show understood that to remain relevant within popular culture, they would also need to change. Even though, Doctor Who has made strives over the past five decades to create a more inclusive television program, they still lack in accurate representation of society. During the 1960’s, Great Britain was coming to terms with the decline of their once massive empire as well as overall lose of world power. The United States of America and the Soviet Union were now the dominating powers, leaving Great Britain frustrated. That is where media stepped in the help counteract this fact. British television and films were made to demonstrate the power and knowledge of the kingdom with the James Bond series and the Avengers. DoctorShow MoreRelatedReality Television Programs Essay676 Words   |  3 Pagesaround the world have discovered that so called â€Å"Reality Television† programs are the key to maximising viewer bases and therefore profits. It is undisputed that Reality Television makes money. This has resulted in immense amounts of these programs being plastered across our screens. While these programs line the pockets of producers and companies, they are not necessarily beneficial to their audien ces and the society we live in. Reality Television programs of today promote schadenfreude, which is â€Å"theRead MoreA Comparison of American and British TV Comedy Essay1700 Words   |  7 PagesAmerican and British TV Comedy Sit-coms in television history have been one of the most important genres for expressing the values of the middle and lower classes in our society, not in order to make fun of them but to express the best of them in a softer way. For the general public today, the sit-com is like the pantomime was for the Victorians. British comedy still has a Victorian taste, but it is one that is only recognized and truly appreciated by the British, which makesRead MoreEssay about Media: Making Society Go Downward1172 Words   |  5 PagesIt seems as if it doesn’t take much to amuse us now days. It is apparent that entertainment, specifically television, has changed drastically. All three of the articles discussed the change of television through the years. They all had interesting views and debated well. The article that I chose to discuss is â€Å"Reality television: Oxymoron† by George F. Will. â€Å"America is becoming increasingly desensitized. Entertainment seeking a mass audience is ratcheting up the violence, sexuality, and degradationRead MoreChoosing Reality 1149 Words   |  5 PagesWhat we as a society watch on television really depends on the choices we make. George F. Will writes in his article â€Å"Reality Television: Oxymoron† of an increasingly infantilized society, whose moral philosophy is reducible to the celebration of â€Å"choice†, where adult s are decreasingly distinguishable from children in their absorption in entertainments. This is a society in which â€Å"choice† exceeds all others and competition improves things. This society is built upon choice in every aspect of lifeRead MoreReality Television : A Psychological Case Study Of Social And Human Behavior850 Words   |  4 PagesSurvivor, created in 1992, is British television producer Charlie Parsons’ contribution to a reality television show that feeds the voyeuristic hunger of viewers. Reality television offers a psychological case study in social and human behaviour in their most vulnerable state. The genre exploits the privacy of contestants and often showcase human traits of deception, manipulation, trickery, betrayal and justification. In fact, reality television allows ordinary individuals to gaze at others muchRead MoreReality Television Has A Negative Impact On Society981 Words   |  4 PagesAs a kind of television programming which has lower production fee and a larger range of audiences,reality television has become a major force of television entertainment.It changes the way audiences watch television by providing imaginary space for them,allowing them fantasize themselves as the part of the show(Hicks,2009).However,while the reality television is argued as ‘highly edited reality’,the positive effects are doubted by some observers.The reality television in this essay can be definedRead More americanisation of australian television Essay1019 Words   |  5 Pages The Americanization of Australian Television is a sad and terrible thing. It is a process whereby ordinary Australians are bombarded every day with images of American lifestyle, so much that it merges almost unnoticed into their own lifestyle. It is a process whereby our home-grown entertainment industry is overwhelmed by the enormous powerhouse of the American economy, with drastic effects upon the modern Australian nation. Not only is Australian free to air TV being dominated by American producedRead MoreDominion Motors Controls Ltd1388 Words   |  6 Pageselectronic media The television has become such an integral part of homes in the modern world that it is hard to imagine life without television. The boob tube, as television is also referred to, provides entertainment to people of all ages. Not just for entertainment value, but TV is also a valuable resource for advertising and different kinds of programming. The television as we see it and know it today was not always this way. Let’s take a brief look at the history of television and how it came intoRead MorePsychological Effects of Television on Children’s Behavior/Learning1519 Words   |  7 Pagesviolence on television have a negative effect on children and teenagers? The violence seen on television has had surprising negative effect. Violence shown on television causes children and teenagers to develop behavioral problems and learning disabilities. Such behavioral and learning problems include; language development, school performance / learning, cognitive development and their general behavior to others (Kinnear 27). In a study on the correlation between violence and television done withRead MoreCosmetic surgery is a globally well-known term, which is undertaken to alter and enhance human1000 Words   |  4 Pagesmislead viewers by showing unrealistic programs, for example rapid weight reduction reality shows. Recent data released by the British Association of Aesthetic Plastic Surgeons states that there are more number of aesthetic surgery and weight reduction surgery such as face-lift and liposuction than ever before (as cited in Petrie, Faasse and Fuhrmann, 2008, p.244). According to Crockett, Pruzinsky and Persing, the major reasonbehind this increase is reality television programslike fox’s ‘The Swan’, that

Bony Anatomy The Knee Joint Health And Social Care Essay Free Essays

Introduction The undermentioned chapter intends to supply an overview of current literature pertinent to this survey. A brief lineation of related anatomy and biomechanics of the articulatio genus articulation will be discussed, every bit good as a theoretical association of articulatio genus degenerative arthritis and the lower kinetic concatenation. The clinical, aetiological and epidemiological facets of degenerative arthritis of the articulatio genus will be provided, along with the possible effects that assorted intervention option may hold on this disease. We will write a custom essay sample on Bony Anatomy The Knee Joint Health And Social Care Essay or any similar topic only for you Order Now Anatomy 2.2.1 Bony Anatomy of the Knee Joint The articulatio genus joint maps chiefly as a big hinge-type articulation, dwelling of three articulations ; two tibiofemoral articulations between the medial and sidelong femoral and tibial condyles, and one patellofemoral articulation between the posterior facet of the kneecap and thighbone ( Moore and Dalley, 1999 ) . Due to the comparative incongruence of the articulating surfaces, the articulatio genus articulation composite is inherently unstable, hence two fibrocartilage phonograph record ( semilunar cartilage ) exist in the infinite between the shinbone and thighbone, are attached to the intercondylar distinction of the shinbone, and farther addition the congruency of the joint every bit good as provide extra stableness ( Magee, 2008 ) . In add-on to the semilunar cartilage, legion environing ligaments play an of import function in stabilization of the articulatio genus. The name, location and specific map of these ligaments are outlined in the tabular array below. Table 2.1.1 Name Location and maps of articulatio genus ligaments Name Location Function Medial ( tibial ) collateral ligament ( MCL ) Anchored superiorly to the median femoral epicondyle, inferior to the adductor tubercle, and descends anteriorly to attach to the median border and median surface of the shinbone above and behind the fond regard of sartorius, gracilis, and semitendinosus sinews. Attaches by much of its deep surface to the underlying hempen membrane of the median semilunar cartilage. Stabilises the hinge-like gesture of the articulatio genus and prevents knee abduction Lateral ( fibular ) collateral ligament ( LCL ) Attaches superiorly to the sidelong femoral epicondyle, superior to the channel for the popliteus sinew. Inferiorly, it is attached to a depression on the sidelong surface of the fibular caput. It is separated from the hempen membrane by a Bursa Stabilises the hinge-like gesture of the articulatio genus and articulatio genus adduction. It is stronger than MCL Anterior cruciate ligament ( ACL ) Attaches to a aspect on the anterior portion of the intercondylar country of the shinbone and ascends posteriorly to attach to a aspect at the dorsum of the sidelong wall of the intercondylar pit of the thighbone Complect the thighbone and shinbone, stops tibia traveling frontward on thighbone, and prevents hyper-extension and inordinate internal rotary motion. ACL crosses sidelong to the PCL as they pass through the intercondylar part Articular capsule and the Bursa Articular capsule presents merely at the sides and posterior facets of the articulatio genus, where it covers the majority of the femoral and tibial condyles. It is stabilised and straighten by the joint ligaments and the musculus sinews. Bursa are extensions of the articulatio genus synovial pit and are filled with synovial fluid The capsule consists of an external hempen bed ( hempen capsule ) and an internal synovial membrane, which is uninterrupted with the synovial liner of the Bursa. They act to cut down clash between the sinews and implicit in castanetss ( hypertext transfer protocol: //andme26.hubpages.com/hub/Anatomy-of-the-knee-Bones-Muscles-Arteries-Veins-Nerves ) 2.2.2 Neurovascular Structures Table 2.1.2 Neuravascular constructions of the articulatio genus 2.2.3 Lower Limb Musculature The primary musculus groups responsible to making motion at the articulatio genus articulation are the quadriceps femoris ( extension ) and hamstrings ( flexure ) . The fond regards, excitation and action of the single musculuss within the quadriceps and hamstring are described in Table 2.1.3.1 and Table 2.1.3.2, severally. Table 2.1.3.1 Attachments, Innervation and Action of Quadriceps Femoris Components Muscle Proximal Attachment Distal Attachment Excitation Action Rectus Femoris Anterior inferior iliac spinal column and Troy superior to acetabulum Via a common sinewy interpolation to the base of kneecap ; indirectly via patellar ligament to tibial tubercle Femoral Nerve ( L2, L3, L4 ) Extend leg at articulatio genus articulation ; rectus femur besides steadies hip articulation and helps iliopsoas musculus flex the thigh Vastus Lateralis Greater trochanter an sidelong lip of linea aspera of thighbone Vastus Medialis Intertrochanteric line and median lip of linea aspera of thighbone Vastus Intermedius Anterior and sidelong surfaces of shaft of thighbone ( Table abridged from Moore and Dalley, 1999 ) Table 2.1.3.2 Attachments, Innervation and Action of Hamstrings Components Muscle Proximal Attachment Distal Attachment Excitation Action Semitendinosus Ischial tubercle Superior portion of shinbone on median surface Tibial division of sciatic nervus ( L5, S1, S2 ) Extend thigh ; flex leg and revolve it medially when articulatio genus is flexed Semimembranosus Ischial tubercle Posterior portion of shinbone on median condyle Bicepss Femoris Long caput: ischial tubercle Short caput: linea aspera and sidelong supracondylar line of thighbone Fibula on sidelong side of caput Long caput: Tibial division of sciatic nervus ( L5, S1, S2 ) Short caput: Common fibular division of sciatic nervus ( L5, S1, S2 ) Extend thigh ; flex leg and revolve it laterally when articulatio genus is flexed ( Table abridged from Moore and Dalley, 1999 ) 2.2.4 Lower Limb Biomechanics The primary motions of the articulatio genus are flexure and extension, with a smaller rotational constituent when the articulatio genus is flexed ( Moore and Dalley, 1999 ) . Table 2.1.4 outlines the chief motions of the articulatio genus articulation, every bit good as the name and action of the musculus bring forthing them. Table 2.1.4 Motions of the articulatio genus Motion and scope of motion Name Action Knee flexors 135A °-150A ° 1. Hamstrings ( semitendinosus, semimembranosus, biceps femoris ) 2. Popliteus Flexs and rotes leg medially, locks and unlocks the articulatio genus from beginnings of flexure Knee extensors 0A °-10A ° Quadricepss femoris ( rectus femur, vastus lateralis, vastus medialis, vastus intermedialis ) extends leg, ( but flexes thigh by action of rectus femur ) Medial rotary motion 0A °-10A ° Popliteus ( non-weight bearing articulatio genus extended ) , or semitendinosus and semimembranosus ( when knee flexed ) Weakly flexes articulatio genus, unlocks knee by revolving femur 5A ° laterally on fixed shinbone Lateral rotary motion 0A °-30A ° Bicepss femoris ( when knee flexed ) Weakly flexes articulatio genus, unlocks knee by revolving femur 5A ° medially on fixed shinbone ( hypertext transfer protocol: //andme26.hubpages.com/hub/Anatomy-of-the-knee-Bones-Muscles-Arteries-Veins-Nerves ) The comparative incongruence of the articular surface consequences in the articulatio genus being comparatively weak automatically, and a greater trust on the actions of environing musculuss, sinews and ligaments for strength and support ( Magee, 2008 ) . The anterior thigh musculuss are the most critical of these supports, with the quadriceps femoris musculuss being the most of import stabilizer of the articulatio genus articulation ( Moore and Dalley, 1999 ) . Because of the fond regard of the quadriceps femoris musculus across two articulations, it is capable of bring forthing action at both the hip and the articulatio genus ( Moore and Dalley, 1999 ) . The three vastus musculuss ( vastus intermedius, vastus medialis and vastus lateralis ) form the primary extensor musculus group of the articulatio genus ( Moore and Dalley, 1999, Magee, 2008 ) . The rectus femoris division of the quadriceps femoris musculus Acts of the Apostless, along with the iliopsoas, to flex the hip ( Moore and Dalley, 1999 ; Marieb, 2004 ) ; therefore its ability to widen the articulatio genus is compromised when the hip is flexed. As a consequence, the ability of the quadriceps femoris musculus group to bring forth knee extension is most effectual when the hip articulation is extended ( Moore and Dalley, 1999 ) . The hamstrings musculus group produces extension at the hip and flexure at the articulatio genus ( Moore and Dalley, 1999 ; Marieb, 2004 ) . These two actions of the hamstrings can non be performed maximally at the same clip, as full flexure of the articulatio genus requires so much shortening that the hamstrings can non supply the extra contraction needed for full extension of the hip, and frailty versa ( Moore and Dalley, 1999 ) . The hamstrings, nevertheless, demonstrate most activity when they are eccentrically undertaking to defy hip flexure and articulatio genus extension ( Moore and Dalley, 1999 ) . A survey by Wilson et Al ( 2011 ) aimed to look into the correlativity between articulatio genus articulation biomechanics and neuromuscular control and moderate articulatio genus degenerative arthritis radiographic and pain badness, higher articulatio genus adduction minutes ( during stance stage ) and lower articulatio genus flexure angles ( full pace rhythm ) were associated with higher RVAS. Higher hurting tonss were associated with lower pace velocities and reduced activation of the sidelong gastroc between early and late stance stage, which the writers suggested may be a mechanism to antagonize high median compartment articulation burden. Additionally, increased activation of the median hamstring between early stance stage and toe off may be declarative of higher coactivity of these musculuss in a guarding mechanism to increase joint stiffness and cut down the hurting, and perchance to compensate joint instability. 2.2.4.1 Kinetic Chain Theory The kinetic concatenation is defined as â€Å" a combination of several in turn arranges myofascial, articular and nervous constituents, representing a complex unit † ( Bergmann A ; Peterson, 2002 ) . In order for this system to map, it requires optimum alliance, mechanics and enlisting of these articulations. There are 3 sub-systems within a kinetic concatenation ( active, inactive and nervous ) , all of which contribute to the production of motion: In the lower limb there exists a functional relationship between the articulatio genus and the superior articulations in the hip and lumbopelvic spinal column, every bit good as the pes and mortise joint, inferiorly. When the pess are weight-bearing, the kinetic concatenation is closed and the links map interdependently, with a alteration in one articulation ensuing in an immediate consequence on the kinematics of other articulations in the concatenation. Therefore, a disfunction in the articulatio genus can hold a direct consequence on next articulation in the concatenation, and frailty versa. This highlights the importance of turn toing non merely the country of ailment, but besides next parts to rectify any potentially altered biomechanics of the kinetic concatenation in entirety. Overview of Osteoarthritis of the Knee Epidemiology Incidence and Prevalence By the age of 60 old ages, about 100 % of the population will hold histologic alterations of devolution in their articulatio genus gristle, over 80 % will hold radiographic grounds of OA in at least one articulation, about 40 % will describe clinical symptoms of arthritis, and 10 % will see activity restriction ( Loeser 2000 ) . Hazard Factors Harmonizing to the Framingham degenerative arthritis survey, the major hazard factors for KOA were age, female gender, fleshiness, non-smoking, occupational articulatio genus bending, physical labor, and chondrocalcinosis ( Felson 1993 ) . Other hazard factors identified are listed in the tabular array below. Table 2.2.1 Hazard factors and Protective factors for KOA harmonizing to the Framingham OA survey Hazard factors Age Female gender Geneticss Race Geographic Fleshiness Major articulation injury Occupational Immobilization High bone mineral denseness Joint hypermobility A ; instability Insistent articulation usage Peripheral neuropathy Prior inflammatory articulation disease Congenital/developmental defects Crystal deposition in articulations Oestrogen surplus Diabetess, high blood pressure, hyperuricaemia Protective factors Smoking Osteoporosis Weight decrease Age: Age is the strongest hazard factor for OA, with an addition in prevalence of diagnostic OA from 7.0 % in those aged 63-69 old ages old to 11.2 % in those over the age of 80. Radiographic grounds of OA increased from 27.4 % amongst those in their 1960ss compared to 43.7 % prevalence in those in their 1880ss ( Felson 1987 ) . Gender: Age related increased in OA were found to be more evident in females ; non merely with respect to incidence, but besides in badness and rate of patterned advance ( grade 3/4 alterations increased in prevalence by 7.9 % from the 6th to eighth decennary of life ( Felson 1990 ) . Although there was small or no difference in gender prevalence of mild OA ( Roberts 1996 ) , females tended to hold more terrible OA, a greater figure of joint engagements, more symptoms, and a higher prevalence of manus and articulatio genus OA ( Kellgren-Lawrence 1963 ) ( Felson1995 ) . Recent surveies suggest that post-menopausal oestrogen lack may play a function in development of KOA in older adult females ( Nevitt 1996 ) . Males, nevertheless, had an increased prevalence of hip OA ( particularly in those aged 55 and supra ) ( Kellgren-Lawrence 1963 ) Fleshiness: Fleshiness is the strongest modifiable hazard factor for development of KOA, particularly in adult females ( Loeser 2000 ) . Harmonizing to the Framingham survey, higher organic structure mass index ( BMI ) was associated with an odds ratio of 1.6 per 5-unit addition in BMI. Similarly, a weight loss correlated to a 40 % lessening in hazard of KOA per 10-lb ( ~4.5kg ) weight loss ( Felson 1988/1997 ) . Hazard for development of KOA increased exponentially when fleshiness was present with an extra hazard factor, such as heavy physical activity. Aged patients in the upper tertile of BMI who performed at least 3 hours of physical activity daily had an odds ratio of 13 for development of KOA ( McAlindon 1999 ) . Major joint injury: The comparative hazard for development of radiographic KOA following meniscectomy for direction of stray meniscal cryings was 14 ( Roos 1998 ) . Surveies besides suggest that quadriceps failing increased the hazard of both radiographic and diagnostic OA ( Slemendra 1997 ) . Insistent articulation usage: While there is deficient informations to propose that featuring activities may take to generalised OA ( Lane 1993 ) , it has been shown that certain businesss may do the overexploitation of peculiar articulations, therefore increasing the hazard of development of localized OA ( Croft 1992 ) . For illustration, occupational articulatio genus bending is strongly associated with KOA and mineworkers frequently exhibit marks of spondylosis ( Felson 1990 ) . Muscle dysbalance A ; wasting: Muscles play a major function in joint biomechanics as the green goods motions, absorb burden, and supply dynamic joint stableness. It is therefore possible that musculus failing due to aging or anterior injury my consequence in loss of the protective musculus control, inordinate joint motion and instability ( Slemendra 1997 ) . Ultimately this will do stress-induced microtrauma of the articular gristle due to the increased happening in physiological shear and extremum articulation forces. Over an drawn-out period of clip, this microtrauma will do gristle devolution, with pathological subchondral force per unit area addition and attendant subchondral induration, and joint prostration with axis maldeviation ( mention ) . Slemenda et Al. conducted a prospective survey in which reduced articulatio genus extensor strength was present in those topics who developed OA as compared to the unaffected participants ( Slemendra 1998 ) . Similar findings were seen in a survey by on patients with one-sided mortise joint OA, in which the affected side displayed reduced calf perimeter and decreased electromyography ( EMG ) frequences of lower leg musculuss ( Valdererrohano 2006 ) . In a healthy person, musculus biopsies have shown wasting of type-1 musculus fibers ( slow-twitch ) in the vastus lateralis following periods of articulatio genus immobilization. In KOA patients nevertheless, failing of the vastus lateralis was largely due to type-2 fiber wasting ( Nakamara and Suzuki 1992 ) . Fink et al so investigated the structural alterations in the vastus medialis and found type-2 fiber wasting in all specimens ( which was consistent with informations from Nakamara ) every bit good as extra type-1 fiber wasting in 32 % of patients ( Fink 2007 ) . Exercise preparation has been found to increase diameter of both type-1 and type-2 musculuss fibers ( Saltin 1977 ) , and was therefore the recommendation of the writers in order to antagonize the musculus wasting and therefore protract the oncoming of OA. As musculuss increase in size with exercising, it is suspected that wasting in creaky patients is non merely caused by neglect in the presence of joint stiffness and hurting, but besides by age-related sarcopenia ( generalized loss of skeletal musculus mass ) , physical immobilization and decreased physical activity ( Goodpaster 2006 ) . This musculus wasting, irrespective of its causative pathomechanism, has been found to be strongly correlated to the development of OA. Since exercising additions muscle mass and improves musculus map, it is likely to play an of import function in intervention and bar of OA. Pathology OA is characterised by focal loss of gristle with grounds of attach toing periarticular bone response. Clinically, it presents as joint hurting and crepitus in the aged age group, and is radiographically characterised by reduced joint infinite, osteophytes and a assortment of malformations that develop as the disease progresses. Pathogenesis and Morphology Normal hyaline gristle comprises chondrocytes ( 1-2 % ) embedded in extra-cellular matrix, which in bend is constituted by H2O, type-II collagen and proteoglycans. Articular gristle performs two chief maps: 1 ) along with synovial fluid, it provides virtually friction-free motion within the joint ; and 2 ) in weight-bearing articulations, it spreads the burden across the joint surface in a mode that allows the implicit in castanetss to absorb daze and weight. These maps require that gristle be elastic and have a high tensile strength. These properties are provided by proteoglycans and type II collagen, both of which are produced by chondrocytes. Articular gristle invariably undergoes matrix devolution and replacing. Any instability in normal chondrocytes ability to keep gristle synthesis and debasement can take to OA. Majority of the pathological alterations in OA occur in the gristle itself, nevertheless as the disease progresses, the organic structure and synovial constructions bes ides begin to demo marks of devolution. ( Reference ) Cartilage Changes: Chondrocyte map can be affected by a assortment of influences, including mechanical emphasiss, aging, metabolic and familial factors, increased bone denseness and high oestrogen degrees. Regardless of the inciting stimulation, early OA is marked by the degenerating gristle incorporating more H2O and less proteoglycan ( mention ) . This occurs as a consequence of an enzymatic debasement of the major structural constituents, aggrecan and collagen, which causes reactive proliferation of chondrocytes to organize bunchs ( ringers ) with increased production of matrix constituents. Although the turnover of aggrecan constituents is increased, the concentration finally falls. The lessening in size of hydrophilic aggrecan molecules increases the H2O concentration and swelling force per unit area in gristle, farther interrupting the staying staging of type II collagen. Overall, gristle tensile strength and resiliency are compromised doing it susceptible to supporting hurts. ( BOON ET AL ) Progression of these alterations leads to transgress of surface unity, crevices, opposing, flaking of gristle and development of perpendicular clefts ( fibrillations ) , localised chondrocyte decease and lessening in gristle thickness. Cartilage loss is focal instead than widespread and normally restricted to the maximal supporting portion of the joint ( BOON ET AL ) . Gross scrutiny at this phase reveals a soft farinaceous articular gristle surface ( kumar et Al ) . Bone Changes: The bone instantly below the compromised gristle responds by increasing its trabecular thickness ( subchondral induration ) , which in some instances reflects healed trabeculate microfractures or countries of osteonecrosis caused by the increased force per unit area in bone as the gristle fails in its load-transmitting map. The break gaps allow synovial fluid to be forced into the subchondral parts, organizing hempen walled cysts. At the border of the joint there is formation of new fibrocartilage, which so undergoes endochondral ossification to organize osteophytes. Despite cardinal and fringy new bone formation, with terrible gristle loss, crevices may intensify and expose the subchondral bone to have on, with the unprotected bone ends going ivory-like due to inspissating and vascularization ( eburnation ) , frequently with deep linear furrows ( BOON ET AL ) . Small breaks can free pieces of gristle and subchondral bone into the joint, organizing loose organic structu res ( joint mice ) . Bone remodelling and gristle thinning easy alter the form of OA articulations, increasing their surface Other Changes: The synovial membrane undergoes variable grades of hyperplasia, sometimes as aureate although less widespread as RA ( In terrible disease, a hempen synovial pannus covers the peripheral parts of the articular surface ) . Osteochondral organic structures normally occur within the synovial membrane, reflecting chondroid mataplasia or secondary consumption and growing of damaged gristle fragments. The outer capsule besides thickens and contracts, normally retaining the stableness of the remodelling articulation. The musculuss that act over the joint normally show non-specific type-II fiber wasting ( BOON ET AL ) . Natural History The class of OA is extremely variable. Those patients with multiple affected articulations tend to hold a more rapid patterned advance of OA in their single articulations ( Felson 1993 ) . Advanced age ( Felson 1993 ) and fleshiness ( Felson 1993 ) are besides associated with more rapid patterned advance. Primary OA is regarded as by and large easy progressive, which is apparent in one 3rd to two tierces of radiographic OA instances ; while it has been known to brace for many old ages, betterments are rare ( kumar et Al ) . Diagnostic OA may come on, or better, or may even be arrested due to the fact that symptoms have been shown to be ill correlated to radiographic patterned advance ( Kellgren-Lawrence 1963 ) . Osteophye encroachments on spinal hiatuss are a common cause of nervus root entrapment, which may ensue in neurological shortages such as radicular hurting, musculus wasting or cramp, and centripetal loss. With clip, entire articulation prostration may happen, but unlike Rheu matoid arthritis, does non ensue in joint anchylosis ( merger ) . ( kumar et Al ) Subsets of OA Primary OA can be categorised into three major subsets, although it may non be easy to find an exact differentiation between the subsets ( Doherty 1994 ) . Nodal Generalised OA: GOA is characterised by distal, and proximal to a lesser extent, interphalangeal ( IP ) articulation engagement, Heberden ‘s nodes ( cadaverous expansion of DIP articulation ) , Bouchard ‘s nodes ( cadaverous expansion of PIP articulation ) and familial bunch. It peaks at in-between age and is common in females ( Doherty 1994 ) . Erosive OA: Characterised by engagement of IP articulations of custodies, frequently with aureate redness and erosive alterations, that subsequently take to malformations and anchylosis. A little proportion ( 15 % ) may germinate into seropositive rheumatoid arthritis ( Doherty 1994 ) . Isolated big joint OA: Knee: This is the most common signifier of OA, frequently happening bilaterally. It may affect preponderantly the median femorotibial, sidelong femorotibial or patellofemoral compartment. Hip: Predominantly involves the superior pole or the median compartment. Spinal column: Apophyseal joint engagement is the lone true signifier of OA that can affect the spinal column and is typically manifested my hurting on extention on the spinal column. Intervertebral phonograph record ( IVD ) devolution with osteophyte formation is considered an built-in portion of OA, and normally affects the lumbar and cervical parts. Diffuse intraosseeous skeletal hyperostosis ( DISH ) and ossification of posterior longitudinal ligaments ( OPLL ) are considered to be discrepancies of spondylosis, and comprise fluxing calcification of the disc border and anterior and posterior longitudinal ligament, severally ( mention ) . Clinical Features Signs and symptoms of OA may take many old ages after the oncoming of the disease to go clinically apparent. This is due the fact that the patterned advance of the disease is extremely variable A ; there tends to be hapless correlativity to radiographic and microscopic patterned advance. Another possible ground that there may be a hold in the visual aspect of symptoms after devolution has taken topographic point is because due to a deficiency of excitation within the gristle ( Lane 1993 ) . Joints normally involved in OA are the articulatio genus, fingers, and spinal apophyseal articulations. Less normally are the hips, acromioclavicular and sternoclavicular articulations, while carpal, cubitus, mortise joint and glenohumeral articulations are seldom involved in isolation. Signs and Symptoms Symptoms if OA often have an insidious oncoming and an asymmetrical distribution, subsequently going symmetric as the disease progresses. Factors that may foretell the presence of diagnostic OA and rate of patterned advance include advanced age, fleshiness and multiple affected articulations. The central marks of OA include bony puffiness, synovial gush, crepitus, restricted scope of gesture, joint malformation and, musculus failing and wasting. Symptoms associated with OA include hurting, joint stiffness and functional damage, although all need n’t be present at the same clip A ; badness: Pain: Pain normally begins as an intermittent localised deep aching in and around the affected articulation, frequently exacerbated by motion. As the disease progresss, hurting may go more relentless, going nowadays at dark and during remainder. In KOA, hurting is normally localised to the front tooth and median facets of the articulatio genus and upper thigh, normally occurs with step usage, mounting in and out of vehicles, and making day-to-day activities such as bathing, standing from a seated place and utilizing a lavatory. These jobs may be amplified in the presence of attendant hip pathologies, where normal walking pace is likely to be altered as a consequence of the inguen and leg hurting. Stiffness: Stiffness in the involved articulations is typically present and worst first thing in the forenoon ( forenoon stiffness ) and lasts between five and 30 proceedingss. Stiffness may besides be present subsequently in the twenty-four hours after periods of remainder or inaction ( gelling ) , but is brief and relieved by soft motion ( Doherty 1994 ) . This stiffness is frequently associated with impaired motion within the joint and my consequence from a figure of causes ; joint adhesion, capsular tightening and thickener, inflexibleness of the overlying soft tissue and/or altered joint construction ( eg. as a consequence of osteophyte formation ) . Functional Damage: The badness of functional damage is mostly dependent on the grade of devolution, type of joint involved every bit good as the specific location of the devolution within the joint. For illustration, if there is pronounced devolution with osteophyte formation on next jointing surfaces, which make contact during motion, one would anticipate to happen that scope of gesture is impaired. Similarly, loose organic structures may ensue in reduced scope of gesture every bit good as possible lockup or buckling, particularly if located within the articulatio genus articulation. Crepitus develops as a consequence of gristle loss articulation and abnormalities on jointing surfaces such that they longer skid swimmingly over one another. This creates a stuttered-type gesture, which can be palpated on scrutiny of scope of gesture. In terrible instances this crepitus may even make hearable â€Å" dads † . Crepitus is present in over 90 % of patients with KOA ( mention ) . In terrible instances, joint subluxation may happen when there is uneven wear of the joint surfaces. Over an drawn-out period of clip this will ensue in asymmetrical joint infinite narrowing and finally prostration. When this occurs in the articulatio genus, the median tibiofemoral articulation to typically more affected than the sidelong and in over 50 % of patients will do the development of a knee varus ( â€Å" bow leg malformation † ) . Functional damage may besides ensue non merely from structural alterations to the joint surfaces, but besides from other alterations associated with OA, such as arthrogenic musculus suppression. In this instance, the patient may see failing due to wasting of the surrounding musculuss, every bit good as stiffness or reduced scope of gesture due to inflexibleness ( Hurley 1998 ) . Table 2.2.2 Outline of Typical Symptoms of Osteoarthritis Symptoms Patient over age of 45 Insidious onset over months or old ages Variable or intermittent hurting over clip Chiefly related to motion and weight-bearing, relieved by remainder Merely brief forenoon ( lt ; 15 proceedingss ) stiffness and â€Å" gelling † ( lt ; 1 minute ) after remainder Normally merely one or two articulations painful ( non multiple regional hurting ) ( Adapted from Davidson ‘s ) Table 2.2.3 Outline of Clinical Signs Characteristic of Osteoarthritis Signs Restricted motion ( capsular thickener, barricading by osteophytes ) Palpable, sometimes hearable, class crepitus ( unsmooth articular surfaces ) Bony swelling ( osteophytes ) around articulation borders Deformity, normally without instability Joint-line or periarticular tenderness Muscle failing, blowing No, or merely mild, synovitis ( gush, increased heat ) ( Adapted from Davidson ‘s ) 2.3.3.2 Arthrogenic Muscle Inhibition ( AMI ) AMI is defined as the failure of a functional musculus group to enroll all motor units during maximum voluntary contraction ( Suter et al, 2000 ) . When joint receptors are subjected to distention, compaction, ligamentous stretch, gush and hurting, this protective mechanism is activated, doing automatic suppression of the environing muscularure to forestall farther hurt to the joint ( Crossman and Neary, 1995 ) . The hurting, joint annoyance and musculus cramps frequently associated with KOA, taking to biomechanical alterations and redness, consequences in an suppression of the joint motorneuron pool and inability to enroll all the musculus fibers within the musculus groups that cross the affected articulation. The net consequence is: lessening musculus strength ( existent and/or evident failing ) , doing holds in the rehabilitation advancement ( Hopkins and Ingersoll, 2000 ) Altered motion forms due to a alteration in motor control and joint proprioception, increasing the hazard of hurting, re-injury and accelerated devolution because of the deformed articulation forces ( Lee, 4004 ) Diagnostic Standards Prior to the development of clinical standards for diagnosing of OA in 1981? , the diagnosing of OA was frequently based on radiographic visual aspect and standards proposed by Kellgren and Lawrence in 1957, which is accepted by the World Health Organisation. The diagnosing of OA is mostly clinico-radiographic, that is both clinical and radiographic characteristics are taken into consideration to find the presence and badness of the disease. It is widely acknowledged that radiographic alterations may non be present in the early phases of devolution, while merely 40-50 % of patients with radiographic grounds of OA are clinically symptomless ( Roberts 1996 ) . For this ground the American Rheumatism Association devised diagnostic standards for OA in assorted articulations. Table 2.2.4 Clinico-radiographic Classification Criteria for Osteoarthritis of the Knee Traditional format Classification tree format Knee hurting Osteophytes Plus One of three: Age gt ; 50 old ages Stiffness lt ; 30 proceedingss Crepitus Knee hurting and Osteophytes Or Knee hurting and age a†°? 40 old ages and forenoon stiffness a†°Ã‚ ¤ 30 proceedingss in continuance and crepitus on gesture ( Altman 1986 ) Table 2.2.5 Clinico-radiographic Classification Criteria for Osteoarthritis of the Hip Hip hurting At least two of the followers: ESR Westergreen lt ; 20mm/hr Radiographic femoral or cotyloid osteophytes Radiographic joint infinite narrowing ( superior, axial and/or medial ) ( Altman 1991 ) Table 2.2.6 Clinico-radiographic Classification Criteria for Osteoarthritis of the Handss Hand hurting, hurting, or stiffness Three or four of the followers: Hard tissue expansion of 2 or more of 10 selected joints* Hard tissue expansion of 2 or more DIP articulations Less than 3 conceited MCP articulations Deformity of at least one of 10 selected joints* * 10 selected articulations are 2nd and 3rd DIP articulation, 2nd and 3rd PIP articulation, and 1st carpometacarpal joint ( Altman 1990 ) Radiographic Diagnosis There are eight central marks of DJD: asymmetric distribution, non-uniform loss of joint infinite, osteophytes, subchondral induration, subchondral cysts, intra-articular loose organic structures, intra-articular malformation, and joint subluxation. The radiographic presentation of OA varies depending on the joint involved, the anatomic relationships, and the emphasis to which the articulation is subjected. Therefore all eight marks need non be present in order to set up a diagnosing of OA ; nevertheless they may be utile in in finding the grade of underlying diseased sequences affecting the joint compartments. The tabular array below is the scaling system used to set up radiographic badness of OA ( mention – Y A ; R? ) . Table 2.2.7 Kellgren-Lawrence Classification of Osteoarthritis Description Normal No alteration Class I Improbable narrowing of the joint infinite, possibleA osteophytes Grade II SmallA osteophytes, possible narrowing of the joint Grade III Multiple, reasonably sizedA osteophytes, definite joint infinite narrowing, some sclerosed countries, possible distortion of bone terminals Grade IV Multiple largeA osteophytes, terrible joint infinite narrowing, marked induration and definite cadaverous terminal malformation. mention Asymmetrical Distribution: There is often a seeable disparity when comparing the extent of joint engagement with the unaffected ( or lesser affected ) articulation on the contralateral side. The asymmetrical distribution of OA helps to separate it from inflammatory arthropathies, such as RA, when have a characteristically symmetrical engagement ( mention – Y A ; R? ) . Non-Uniform Loss of Joint Space: Decrease in joint infinite is most likely to happen at the parts of greatest intra-articular emphasis, which is particularly apparent in weight-bearing articulations such as the spinal column, hip, and articulatio genus ( mention – Y A ; R? ) . Osteophytes: Radiographically, these are seen as cadaverous branchs widening from the part of capsular interpolation into the joint infinite. In really terrible instances the osteophyte may wholly bridge the joint infinite, doing anyklosis of the joint ( cite – Y A ; R? ) . Subchondral Sclerosis ( Eburnation ) : This is normally apparent in countries where there is the greatest loss in gristle tallness. It occurs as a consequence of increased mechanical forces being transmitted to the joint surfaces that lack the daze absorbing consequence of normal gristle thickness. In order to antagonize these increased forces, the bing trabeculate bone thickens and new bone is formed. This is seen on radiogram as increased countries of radio-opacity in the subchondral bone underlying parts of reduced joint infinite ( mention – Y A ; R? ) . Subchondral Cysts ( Goedes ) : These are focal parts of loss in bone denseness, of variable size, which appear as rounded countries of radiolucency and frequently have a sclerosed border. They are located in countries of old subchiondral induration, and occur either as a consequence of synovial fluid invasion through the open articular home base or secondary to trabeculate break and subsequent mortification ( mention – Y A ; R? ) . Intra-Articular Loose Bodies ( Joint Mice ) : As joint devolution advancements, flaking and atomization may ensue in intra-articular accretion of free drifting organic structures, comprised mostly of gristle and on occasion subchondral bone ( mention – Y A ; R? ) . Articular Deformity: Progressive distortion of the articular surfaces may happen following insistent emphasis, doing big subchondral cysts, trabeculate remodelling, break and prostration, which may be exacerbated my mortification due to secondary vascular perturbations ( mention – Y A ; R? ) . Joint Subluxation: The joint finally becomes unstable and prone to displacement due to joint surface distortion, loss of joint infinite, and laxness within the construction of the ligaments and sinews. This alters in the burden distribution, farther increasing the unbalances emphasiss of the joint, speed uping the degenerative procedure ( mention – Y A ; R? ) . Clinical Diagnosis Altman et Al. ( 1986 ) developed sets of standards for the categorization of idiopathic OA of the articulatio genus. Table 2.2.8 Classification Criteria for Diagnosis of Idiopathic Osteoarthritis ( OA ) of the Knee * Clinical and research lab Clinical and radiolograohic Clinical ** Knee Pain + at least 5 of 9: Age gt ; 50 old ages Stiffness lt ; 30 proceedingss Crepitus Bony tenderness Bony Enlargement No tangible heat ESR lt ; 40 mm/hr RF lt ; 1:40 SF OA Knee Pain + at least 1 of 3: Age gt ; 50 old ages Stiffness lt ; 30 proceedingss Crepitus + Osteophytes Knee Pain + at least 3 of 6: Age gt ; 50 old ages Stiffness lt ; 30 proceedingss Crepitus Bony tenderness Bony Enlargement No tangible heat 92 % Sensitivity 75 % Specific 91 % Sensitivity 86 % Specific 95 % Sensitivity 69 % Specific * ESR = erythrocyte sedementation rate ( Westergreen ) ; RF = arthritic factor ; SF OA = synovial fluid marks of OA ( clear, syrupy, or white blood cell count lt ; 2000/mm3 ) . ** Alternative would be 4 of 6, which is 84 % sensitive and 89 % particular. ( mention ) Differentiation from other Arthritic Diseases Arthritic arthritis: associated with more marks of redness affecting the MCP, carpus, wrist bones and other peripheral articulations, every bit good as the cervical spinal column. Generalised OA involves the DIP, PIP and first CMC articulations in the manus and, cervical and lumbar spinal column parts. RA distinguished from erosive OA through positive research lab trial, such as arthritic factor, ESR, and synovial fluid analysis ( Boon et al, ) . Joints actively involved in arthritic arthritis seldom show osteophytes, therefore their presence is a utile index of OA if the patient presents with a assorted clinical image. If osteophytes precede arthritic engagement, it indicated that rheumatoid arthritis has evolved from an erosive OA. Conversely, they will merely develop in secondary devolution following RA burn out ( Yochum A ; Rowe, ) . Pseudogout: differentiated from OA by presence of CPPD crystals in synovial fluid, every bit good the in engagement of articulations that are non typically associated with primary OA, such as the cubitus and shoulder ( McCarthy 1998 ) . Table 2.2.9 Categorization for Subsets of Idiopathic Osteoarthritis Localised: Handss: Heberden ‘s and Bouchard ‘s nodes ( nodal ) Erosive interphalangeal arthritis ( non-nodal ) Scaphometacarpal Scophotrapezal Foot: Halux valgus Hallux rigidus Contracted toes ( hammer/cock-up toes ) Talonavicular Knee: Medial compartment Lateral compartment Patellofemoral compartment Hip: Eccentric ( superior ) Concentric ( axial, median ) Diffuse ( coxae senilis ) Spine ( peculiarly cervical and lumbar ) : Apophyseal Intervertebral ( phonograph record ) Spondylosis ( osteophytes ) Ligamentous hyperostosis [ DISH* or Forestier ‘s disease ] ) Other individual sites: Shoulder Temporomandibular Sacroiliac Ankle Wrist Acromioclavicular Generalised ( includes 3 or more sites listed above ) : Small ( peripheral ) and spinal column Large ( cardinal ) and spinal column Mixed ( peripheral and cardinal ) and spinal column * DISH = Diffuse Idiopathic Skeletal Hyperostosis How to cite Bony Anatomy The Knee Joint Health And Social Care Essay, Essay examples

HYPERLINK http//www.ancient.eu/hadrian/ Hadrian Essay Example For Students

HYPERLINK http://www.ancient.eu/hadrian/ Hadrian Essay HYPERLINK http://www.ancient.eu/hadrian/Hadrian(76-138 CE)wasthefourteenthEmperorofHYPERLINK http://www.ancient.eu/Rome/Rome(10 August 117to10July138 CE) and isknownasthethirdoftheFiveGoodEmperors( HYPERLINK http://www.ancient.eu/Nerva/Nerva,HYPERLINK http://www.ancient.eu/trajan/Trajan,Hadrian,HYPERLINK http://www.ancient.eu/Antoninus_Pius/AntoninusPius, andMarcus Aurelius)whoruledjustly.BornPubliusAeliusHadrianus,probablyinHispania,HadrianisbestknownforhissubstantialbuildingprojectsthroughouttheHYPERLINK http://www.ancient.eu/Roman_Empire/RomanEmpireand,especially,HadriansWallinnorthernHYPERLINK http://www.ancient.eu/britain/Britain. Asayoungman,HadrianwaswelleducatedinhishometownofItalicaHispania(moderndaySeville, Spain) andleftforRomearoundtheageof 14.Hisfirstmilitary servicewasasTribuneunderEmperorNerva.WhenNervadied,Trajanascendedtothethrone.EmperorTrajanwasthefirstHYPERLINK http://www.ancient.eu/Roman/Romanrulerofprovincialorigin.LaterbiographerswouldattempttoplacethebirthofbothTrajanandHadrianinthecityofRomebutbothwereofHispanicethnicityandthiscommonalityhasbeenassumedbysometobethereasonforTrajansadoptionofHadrianashissuccessor(thoughmostscholarsdisputethis).TrajandiedoncampaigninHYPERLINK http://www.ancient.eu/Cilicia/Ciliciain117 CE,withHadrianincommandofhisrearguard, and isnotbelievedtohavenamedasuccessor.Trajanswife,Plotina(whowasfond ofHadrian)signedthepapersofsuccessionanditisthoughtthatshe,nottheemperor,wasresponsibleforHadriansadoptionasheir.Howeverthatmaybe,itisknownthatTrajanrespectedHadrianand hadconsideredhimashissuccessorevenifhedidnotofficiallynamehimassuch.HadriansservicetoTrajaniswelldocume ntedthroughthevariousimportantpositionsheheldpriortobecomingemperorofRome. HispopularityasemperorisattestedtobythefactthatHadrianwasabsentfromRomeforthebetterpart ofhisreign.EarlierRomanrulers,suchasNero,wereharshlycriticizedforspendinglesstimeawayfromthecity. Professor D.BrendanNaglewritesthatHadrianspentmost ofhisreign(twelveout oftwenty-oneyears)travelingallovertheEmpirevisitingtheprovinces,overseeingtheadministration, andcheckingthedisciplineofthearmy. Hewasabrilliantadministratorwhoconcernedhimselfwithallaspectsofgovernmentandtheadministrationofjustice (278).Hisdevotiontothearmywassuchthathewouldsleepandeatamongthecommonsoldiersand he iscommonlydepictedinmilitaryattireeventhoughhisregimeismarkedbyrelativepeace. Hadriansbuildingprojectsareperhapshismostenduringlegacy. HeestablishedHYPERLINK http://www.ancient.eu/cities/citiesthroughouttheBalkanPeninsula,HYPERLINK http://www.ancient.eu/egypt/Egypt,HYPERLINK http://www.ancient.eu/Asia_Minor/AsiaMinor, andHYPERLINK http://www.ancient.eu/greece/Greece.HisloveforGreeceandHYPERLINK http://www.ancient.eu/greek/GreekHYPERLINK http://www.ancient.eu/literature/literaturewassuchthathewasknownasGraeculus (Greekling)inhisyouthandhisphilhellenismdidnotdissipatewithage. HevisitedGreeceatleasttwice(probablymore) andparticipatedintheEleusinianMysteries, ofwhichhewasaninitiate. TheArchofHadrian,constructedbythecitizensofHYPERLINK http://www.ancient.eu/Athens/Athensin131/132 CE,honorHadrianasthefounderofthecity.InscriptionsonthearchnameTheseus(thetraditionalfounder)butaddHadrianowingtothelatterssubstantialcontributionstoAthens(suchastheHYPERLINK http://www.ancient.eu/temple/TempleofHYPERLINK http://www.ancient.eu/zeus/Zeus).HededicatedanumberofsitesinGreeceto hisyoungloverAntinous,whodrownedintheHYPERLINK http://www.ancient.eu/nile/NileRiverin130 CE.HadrianwasdeeplyattachedtoAntinousandtheyoungmansdeathsogreatlyaffectedtheemperorthathehadhimdeified(fromwhichthemysterycultinhonorofAntinousgrew).InEgypthefoundedthecity ofAntinopolisinhismemory.InRomeherebuiltthePantheon(whichhadbeendestroyedbyfire) andTrajansForumaswellasfundingconstructionofotherbuildings,baths, andvillas.Manyofthesestructuressurvivedintactforcenturies,someaslateasthe19thcenturyCE, andthePantheon,stillperfectlypreserved,maybevisitedinthepresentday.Hadrianhad agreatinterestinarchitectureandseemstohavecontributedideas,orevenplans,tothearchitectsthoughscholarsnolongerbelievethathewastheleadarchitectonanysingleproject. HADRIANS WALL Ofallhissignificantmonumentsandbuildings,HadriansWallinnorthBritainisthemostfamous.Constructionofthewall,knowninantiquityasVallumHadriani,wasbegunaround122 CE andcorrespondedtoHadriansvisittotheprovince.ItmarkedthenorthernboundaryoftheRomanEmpireinBritainbutthelengthandbreadthoftheproject (stretching,asitdid,fromcoasttocoast)suggeststhatthemoreimportantpurposeofthewallwasa show ofRomespower. Thewallwasoriginally9.7feetwide(3metres) and 16-20feethigh(sixmetres)eastoftheRiverIrthing,allbuiltofstone, and 20feetwide(6metres)by11.feethigh(3.5metres)westoftheriver, madeupofstoneand turf,stretching73miles(120 km)acrossuneventerrain.ItwasbuiltinsixyearsbythelegionsstationedinBritain.Therewerebetween14-17fortificationsalongthelengthofthewalland aVallum(aditchpurposefullyconstructedofearthworks)whichranparalleltothewall. TheVallummeasured20feet(6metres)wideby10feet(3metres)deepflankedbylargemoundsoftightlypackedearth.AsHadriansforeignpolicywaspeacethroughstrengthitisthoughtthatt hewall,whichwasoriginallyplasteredandwhitewashed,wouldhaveclearlyrepresentedthemightoftheRomanEmpire. JERUSALEM AlthoughHadrianwasalearnedandcultivatedman,hispolicy ofpeacefulrelations andnegotiationswasnotalwaysadheredto.In130 CE,HadrianvisitedJerusalem,whichwasstillinruinsfromtheFirstRoman-JewishHYPERLINK http://www.ancient.eu/war/Warof 66-73 CE. HerebuiltthecityaccordingtohisowndesignsandrenameditAeliaCapitolinaJupiterCapitolinusafterhimselfandthekingoftheRomangods.WhenhebuiltatempletoJupiterontheruinsoftheTempleofSolomon(theso-calledSecondTemple,consideredsacredbytheJews),thepopulaceroseupundertheleadershipof Simon barKokhbahinwhathascometobeknownasbarKokhbahsRevolt(132-136 CE).RomanlossesinthiscampaignwereenormousbutJewishlosseswerenolesssignificant.Bythetimetherebellionwasputdown, 580,000Jewshadbeenkilledand over 1000townsandvillagesdestroyed.HadrianthenbanishedtheremainingJewsfromtheregionandrenameditHYPERLINK http://www.ancient.eu/syria/SyriaPalaestinaafterthetraditionalenemiesoftheJewishpeople,thePhilistines. HeorderedapublicburningoftheHYPERLINK http://www.ancient.eu/Torah /Torah,executedtheJewishscholars, andprohibitedthepracticeandobservanceofJudaism. DEATH ; SUCCESSOR Hishealthnowfailing,HadrianreturnedtoRomeandoccupiedhimselfbyHYPERLINK http://www.ancient.eu/writing/writingpoetryandtendingtoadministrativeaffairs. HenamedashissuccessorAntoninusPiusonthestipulationthatAntoninuswouldadopttheyoungMarcus Aureliustofollow.Hadriandiedin138 CE,presumablyof aheartattack,attheageof 62. HewasburiedfirstatPuteoli,onthegroundsoftheformerestateoftheRhetoricianCicero(ashomagetoHadrianslove oflearning)butwhenAntoninusPiuscompletedthegreatHYPERLINK http://www.ancient.eu/tomb/TombofHadrianinRomethefollowingyear,hisbodywascrematedandtheashesinterredtherewithhiswifeandson.AntoninusPius hadHadriandeifiedandtemplesbuiltinhishonor. ThehistorianGibbonwritesthatHadriansrulewas, theperiodinthehistoryoftheworldduringwhichtheconditionofthehumanracewasmost happy andprosperouswhenthevastextentoftheRomanEmpirewasgovernedbyabsolutepowerundertheguidanceofvirtueandwisdom (61).AlthoughHadrianwasnotuniversallyadmiredduringhislife,orsincehisdeath,hisreignisgeneral lyconsideredinkeepingwithGibbonsestimation.

Attitudes towards e

Different faculty member’s attitudes towards e-learning E-learning is increasingly becoming popular in higher education with universities expanding provision as more students sign up for this type of learning module. It is against this reason that there is growing interest among scholars to offer in-depth study on e-learning.Advertising We will write a custom dissertation sample on Attitudes towards e-learning specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More E-learning may be defined as learning process that entails use of various technological tools that are web-enabled for purposes of acquiring desired knowledge (Paravantis, 2010). Although the adoption of e-learning has been expanding rapidly, its key success factor is highly dependant on users’ attitudes who are primarily comprised of students and faculty members. In literature, attitudes have been strongly linked with behavior hence many scholars have undertaken independent stu dies via various methodological approaches to investigate e-learning attitudes among students and faculty members. Attitude can be defined as either positive or negative evaluation of people, object or situations that are likely to affect behavior (Narme, 2008). Various literary studies in psychology have identified three major components, namely affective (beliefs or opinions), cognitive (emotional) and behavioral (intention to behave in specific manner) that affects a person’s attitude towards a particular entity (Narme, 2008). Similarly, specific studies on e-learning taking into consideration the above attitudes components have positively indicated that faculty attitudes towards e-learning can either promote or hinder their willingness to teach and embrace online learning (Liaw, Huang, Chen, 2007). In addition, the latter assert that effective implementation of e-learning technology is dependent on the faculty attitudes and that positive attitude is the greatest incentiv e when adopting e-learning. The role of attitude in the adoption of e-learning has become critical issue and as such, instructors have been overly concerned about several factors that influence faculty attitudes towards e-learning. This is because as Liaw, Huang, Chen (2007) point out, unless considerable effort is made to cultivate positive attitudes among faculty members, the adoption of e-learning in universities is doomed to fail.Advertising Looking for dissertation on education? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Empirical studies have identified several variables that are directly linked to user’s attitudes towards the use of computers. Significant relationship between self efficacies, perceived enjoyment, behavioral intention, perceived usefulness, perceived system satisfaction and multimedia instruction tools and faculty members have been established as expounded below. Variables Prior researches along the same li ne of thinking by had employed the technology acceptance model (TAM) to predict and explain the impact of dependent variables cited above on faculty member’s attitudes towards e-learning in Saudi Arabia as well as in other parts of the world. The basic assumption of the model is the implication that positive adoption of technology depends on the user’s intention to use and the attitudes towards the technology in question (Abouchedid Eid, 2004). The initial as well as subsequent researches positively concluded that the variability in attitudes was highly dependent on how the user perceived the technology in terms of usefulness and self efficacy (Abouchedid Eid, 2004). Liaw, Huang and Chen (2007) in their study, unanimously agreed with the recent empirical researches that technological self efficacy, perceived usefulness and behavioral intention among the user was the main determinant of the concurrent attitudes. Behavior intention has been viewed as the predictor of t he actual behavior and (Cheon, Song Jones, 2010) defines it as person’s conscious plan to carry out or not to carry out a specified behavior in the future, and the degree of the formulated plans varies from individual to another. Additionally, the concept of self efficacy was proposed by Albert Bandura (1997), and in the e-learning arena the term has been defined as a person’s belief on his capability to effectively use technology to improve learning or teaching (Elham, 2009). Depending on the level of self efficacy, the attitudes towards e-learning varied from one individual to another (Abouchedid Eid, 2004). The pattern of their results indicated that ability to use the computer equated to mean computer self efficacy elicited positive attitudes among faculty member’s and vice versa (Liaw, Huang and Chen, 2007).Advertising We will write a custom dissertation sample on Attitudes towards e-learning specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More To expound on the meaning of perceived usefulness of learning Abouchedid Eid (2004) define the term as the type of perceptions on the essentiality of a particular technology in the performance of a particular job, which in turn determines that person’s attitudes. In their study Abouchedid and Eid (2004) had concluded that e-learning attitudes among faculty members varied significantly depending on the level of perceived usefulness of e-learning technology in promoting job performance, and similar conclusions were highlighted in Liaw, Huang and Chen (2007) study. The above notion implies that lectures who perceived e-learning as useful were likely to change their intention and subsequent attitude to adopt the system positively (Abouchedid Eid, 2004). Closely related is the impact of perceived enjoyment on learners and faculty member’s attitude towards e-leaning. Shirley (2002) explains that perceived enjoyment is the intrinsic motivation that is dependent on the user’s perception of the pleasure derived from using the computer in e-learning. Shirley (2002) tested the above variable based on assumption that it impacted on faculty members attitudes towards e-learning adoption. The earlier as well as the latter study by Liaw, Huang and Chen (2007) concluded that attitudes varied significantly depending on the level of perceived enjoyment. Additionally, Cheon, Song and Jones (2010) extended their variables to include perceived system satisfaction variable to test its impact on teacher’s attitudes towards e-learning. The study aimed to test the effect of the general perception about the capability of e-learning to satisfy a learners needs, and how it impacted on the faculty member’s attitude towards the adoption e-learning. This prior study showed that user’s gauged the ability of a system to satisfy the required need based on its flexibility, integration, reliability, accessibility, stability, ease of use and so on. Similarly, Liaw, Huang and Chen (2007) used similar parameters to measure perceived e-learning system satisfaction, and extended their study by measuring how the perceptions impacted on faculty member’s attitudes.Advertising Looking for dissertation on education? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Further analysis of their study results showed significant disparities among faculty member’s attitudes depending on the perceived system satisfaction in meeting e-learner’s needs (Liaw, Huang and Chen, 2007). In addition, studies in the adoption of e-learning system around the world, Saudi Arabia included, have also focused on the role of modern e-learning tools in shaping the learners attitudes towards the adoption of e-learning (Shirley, 2002). On the other hand, Liaw, Huang and Chen (2007) extended this prior empirical study by testing the impact of multimedia instruction tools on faculty member’s attitudes towards e-learning. However, the impact of multimedia instruction tools used in e-learning cannot be viewed autonomous to self-efficiency as both variables are directly linked; In that the user’s belief about his/her capability to use multimedia tools promotes self-efficacy, and by extension elicits positive attitudes towards e-learning. Therefore, the level of self efficacy on the usage of multimedia instruction tools significantly impacted on the attitudes outcomes and varied from one individual to another (Liaw, Huang and Chen, 2007). In a different, but, closely related study carried out by Qudais, Al-Adhaileh and Al-Omari (2010), the attitude of senior members of most faculties towards e-learning was found to be positive. Most of them thought that conducting classes online is not only enjoyable but also stimulating. In the same research, attitude towards the use of modern technology was not influenced by gender, teaching experience or the nature of their institutions. In yet another empirical study by Al Mothana (2009), faculty members had positive attitude towards e-learning with more interest attached to internet based distance education. There was a strong positive relationship between the faculty member’s attitude towards e-learning and its perceived value. A similar study conducted by Albalawi (2000) also rev ealed that most faculty members had a positive attitude towards adopting web based instruction by institutions of higher learning. Almuqayteeb (2009) study on female attitudes towards use of technology revealed that there was positive attitude in using internet based computer in learning. Paravantis (2010) analyses on elementary female teachers towards e-learning indicated that many were willing to embrace it in spite of myriad perceived or real challenges. Shea, Pickett and Li (2005) also researched and concluded that most faculty members regardless of gender were satisfied with e-learning and that they were willing to engage more students due to benefits which came with it. Tzy and Jung (2006) study on examining attitudes of faculty towards teaching online courses, the faculty expressed positive attitudes towards participation in online teaching. A study to reveal the gender differences in attitude towards usage of information and related applications in teaching by McKenzie et al . (2005) there was equal level of positive attitudes displayed by both genders. Qudais, Mosleh and Al-Omari (2010) study identified the attitude towards e-learning to be positive and most of them were willing to be trained to enable them practice. The study also revealed that some faculty members needed financial support to motivate them in using the technology. This has also been supported by the study by Newton (2003) which revealed positive attitude of the faculty members which was also supported by Allan and Will (2001). A study by Agboola (2005) on assessing the awareness and perceptions of academic staff in using E-learning as a tool for instructional delivery in post secondary institutions more than half of the faculty members were willing to embrace it in their teaching methods. Ruth et al. (2009) study on the motivators and inhibitors for university faculties revealed that incentives in the education sector such as e-learning contributes to their positive attitudes towards the adoption of technology. Motivation leads them to developing positive attitudes towards electronic and distance education courses. Cardwell-Hampton (2008) study found that lack of experience and skills in the use of technology makes the faculty members to have negative perception about the embracing the technology. Challenges facing university faculty members towards e-learning In a research conducted by Alajmi (2010), it identified the differences in the demographic characteristics to the main cause of the challenge. Younger faculty members perceived fewer barriers towards e-learning than older faculty members. Different demographic systems registered differences in their perceived challenges towards e-learning. A similar study by Elham (2009) on the potential of implementing online professional training development attempted to find factors which could affect implementation of online training. According to the findings, respondents were skilled in using the computers and had th e basic knowledge in exploring the internet. Their attitude towards online learning was positive and they were ready to seek assistance from the administration for support. The most important barrier which was noticed towards potential of implementing online professional training development was lack of time due to the workload they have. In Elham (2009) study on implementation professional Training Development for the faculty at King Saudi University in Saudi Arabia, the study revealed that many of the faculty members are skilled in the use of computers. Research conducted by Alajmi (2000) on faculty member’s readiness for learning in the college of basic education in Kuwait revealed significant differences to be caused by age differences and department disciplines. Research conducted by Al Mothana (2009) on the faculty attitude towards internet based distance education revealed that the underlying challenges were on availability of the internet and computer access, time was also reported as a major challenge towards adopting internet based distance learning Although there were some barriers and challenges the faculty had a positive attitude toward the approach. Studies with â€Å"nationality† demographic variable From the different studies and research conducted, different nationality variables affect the use of technology. In a research conducted by Al- Sarrani (2010), it revealed that there was no difference between science faculty perceptions on the effects of faculties’ use of Information Technology in teaching. Similar studies were conducted by Albalawi (2000) on three universities in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia; there was a positive attitude towards the use of information technology in teaching. Mital (2006) study found that experience at workplace affects the change process and ability to adapt to new learning styles. This was also affected by individual’s rank position since the young ones needed to gain recognition by emb racing the technology. References Abouchedid, K. Eid,G.M. (2004).E-learning challenges in the Arab world: revelations from a case study profile, Quality Assurance in Education, 12 (1), 15 – 27. Agboola, K. (2007). Assessing the Awareness and Perceptions of Academic Staff in Using E-learning Tools for Instructional Delivery in a Post-Secondary Institution: A Case Study. The Public Sector Innovation Journal, 11(3), 1-12. Alajmi, M. (2010). Faculty members’ readiness for E-learning in the college of basic education in Kuwait. â€Å"Doctoral dissertation†, University of North Texas Press. Albalawi,M (2000). Critical factors related to the implementation of web-based instruction by higher-education faculty at three universities in the kingdom of Saudi Arabia. New York: University of West Florida. Allan, Y. Will, M. (2001). Teachers’ computer attitudes: Factors influencing the instructional use of computers. Paper presented at the International Conference on Computers in Education, Seoul, Korea. Al-Mothana, M. (2009). A Study of Faculty Attitudes toward Internet-Based Distance Education: A Survey of Two Jordanian Public Universities. â€Å"Doctoral dissertation†, College of Education of Ohio University. Almuqayteeb, T. (2009). Attitudes of female faculty toward the use of computer technologies and the barriers that limit their use of technologies in girls’ colleges in Saudi Arabia. â€Å"Doctoral dissertation†, Mississippi State University. Al-Sarrani, N. (2010). Concerns and professional development needs of science faculty at Taibah university in adopting blended learning. â€Å"Doctoral Dissertation†, Kansas State University. Cardwell-Hampton, N. (2008). Faculty Perceptions about Instructional Technology in Eight Community Colleges in the Tennessee Board of Regents Higher Education System. Nashville. â€Å"Doctoral dissertation†, East Tennessee State University. Cheon, J., Song, J. Jones, D. R. (20 11). Influencing Preservice Teachers’ intention to Adopt Web 2.0 Services. Journal of Digital Learning in Teacher Education, 27 (2), 52-64 Elham, A. (2009) the Potential of Implementing Online Professional Training Development for Faculty in the College of Education at King Saudi University. College of Education, â€Å"Doctoral dissertation: Ohio University. Liaw, S. Huang, H. Chen, G. (2007) Surveying instructor and learner attitudes toward e-learning. Computers Education. 4, 1066-1080. McKenzie, B.K. (2005). Faculty Attitudes Toward Distance Education at the State University of West Georgia. Retrieved from https://www.westga.edu/~distance/attitudes.html Mital, M. (2006) No Age Correlation in the Effectiveness of Corporate E-learning in India. Asian Journal of Distance Education, 4(1), 85-89. Narme, J.S. (2008). Psyschology. Belmont, CA: Cengage Learning. Newton, R. (2003). Staff attitudes to the development and delivery of e-learning. New  Library World, 104(10), 412-4 25. Paravantis. J. (2010). Multivariate Analysis of Attitudes of Elementary Education Teachers toward the Environment, Computers and E-Learning. International Journal of Business Studies.4 (1), 34-41. Qudais, M. Mosleh, A Al-Omari (2010). Senior Faculty Members’ Attitudes in JordanianUniversities towards Using Information and Communication Technology. International Arab Journal of e-Technology, 1(4), 135-140. Ruth, G. et al. (2009). Motivators and Inhibitors for University Faculty in Distance and e- learning. British Journal of Educational Technology, 40(1), 149-163. Shea, P. Pickett, A. Li, C. (2005). Increasing access to Higher Education: A study of the diffusion of online teaching among 913 college faculty. International review of research in open and distance learning. 6(2), 1-27. Shirley, A. (2002). A Study of Differential Perceptions of Students and Faculty in distance learning. â€Å"Doctoral dissertation†, Austin University of Texas. Tzy, L Jung, T. (2006). Examination of attitudes towards teaching online courses based on theory of reasoned action of university faculty in Taiwan. British Journal of Educational Technology. 37 (5), 6-13. This dissertation on Attitudes towards e-learning was written and submitted by user Yuliana O. to help you with your own studies. You are free to use it for research and reference purposes in order to write your own paper; however, you must cite it accordingly. You can donate your paper here.

The Best Thing to Do for Your Writing

The Best Thing to Do for Your Writing I saw this in a recent blog post, and when I eagerly delved into the piece, it instead listed items without weight to the suggestions. The blogger interviewed several authors and asked them what they considered to be the single most important item to do to improve your writing. I didnt see mine, and the others said things like pick the right POV, work on dialogue, take an acting class, respect plot. . . which might as well have been just an outline for a writing class. Of course what you take to heart as the most important thing might depend on what your strengths and weaknesses are, but to me, theres only one thing that encompasses novice and seasoned writers. Read and study good, published writing. Whats good? Well, that can be interpreted in several ways, but all must be contingent upon what you want for your own writing. 1) Do you want to sell books? Then read successful books that sold thousands of copies. 2) Do you want to write fantastic mysteries with great twists? Then read mysteries noted for such. 3) Do you want pulse-pounding romance that doesnt sound trite? Then seek strong romance writers. 4) Do you wish to complicate your plot? Find complicated plots. 5) Do you want dialogue that dances on the page and requires no tags to identify the characters? You know what to do. In other words, follow the masters. Some may say that means only bestsellers. Some say that neglects a lot of indie material. Nope. . . it doesnt, on both counts. Regardless of how its published, a book is good or it isnt. Sure, theres opinion laced in there, but when the majority of a books readers love it, and the reviews say why, then you have your markers, and who printed it doesnt matter. What about those books that arent known? Then my suggestion to the authors is to get them known. Is your writing truly remarkable? Then work on distribution and reviews. Do articles, interviews, and speaking engagements to demonstrate your abilities. Is it easy? Hell no. Its not supposed to be. It cant be. Good writing, and the good writer behind that writing, has to fight to be recognized. Whether thats going traditional and fighting to be embraced But I stand my mantra that the best way to improve your writing is to read good books. . . books that make you wish youd written them.

Causes of Crime Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3750 words

Causes of Crime - Essay Example The situation is resoundingly similar in other countries of Africa as well as in Latin America. To measure crime several indicators such as homicide prevalence, reported injury rates, as well as the size of county's security apparatus. As a matter of fact, crime rates have been on the rise in many parts of the world and the causes are as varied as the countries themselves. While prominence has been given to some crimes such as Terrorism, this contributes to only a very small percentage of the total crimes committed in any part of the world. It is perhaps due to the much media attention attached to terrorism that has amplified the reporting on the crime hence making it look uglier and more prominent than other types such as theft, robbery. In terms of causes, there are many causes of crime and most are determined by the nature of crime. For instance, terrorism can be attributed to religious zeal as well as the endeavor to free a group of people from some perceived oppression. Crime di sproportionately causes civil strife as well as the suffering of many including children and women. This sad but real state of affairs calls for efforts geared towards first understanding the causes of crime and secondly undertaking the necessary steps to deal with the causes. There is a dimension, in fact a positive correlation between crime and underdevelopment. Underdevelopment in this case does not mean the absence of technology but it is used to imply the slow progress of a people due to impediments such as insecurity lack of empowerment as well as well as lack of support from the government. Other effects include the loss of or diminishing of GDP which in turn leads to the under provision of basic services, such education and health care. According to World Health Organization's, as at 2002 homicide was approximated to be affecting almost 100 people in every 100,000 people in the population in a study of the Region of the Americas. Spatial dimension of crime. Crime prevalence in urban areas is different from those in rural settings. While crime in most urban settings tends to be associated with social problems such as high poverty rates and high rate of family break ups in non highly urbanized areas, it can be attributed to purely low income rates. Other ways in which crime is manifested includes: homicides, robberies, kidnappings, muggings, assaults, domestic violence, sexual violence, violence against children and the elderly, as well as terrorist activities. Socio economic dimension. The social economic aspect has a bearing on how different people experience crime. He further adds that, age of offenders can be useful in providing explanations for patterns of crime. It has been observed, that, low income earners are more prone to crimes such as homicides as well as physical injuries. On the other hand high income earners are more likely to suffer from crimes such as property related crime In a study in Colombia, it was observed that the poor were more likely to suffer from domestic related crime as opposed to high income earners who mainly faced property crime ,this was mainly attributed to the fact that (Gaviria and Velez ,2001). Homicide deaths have been criticized for failing to take in to account deaths or injuries related to car accidents as analysts treat it still crime related while it may not be the case. Crime is defined as an act committed by a person that is punishable by law

HIV Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

HIV - Essay Example HIV/AIDS has been considered as a serious health issue for the past three decades. However, now it has turned to be a major ‘developmental catastrophe’ that would dismantle all achievements of the past half century. (World Bank, p.1) Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV) is a retrovirus that causes Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome (AIDS). Although the terms HIV and AIDS are used interchangeably, all HIV carriers do not necessarily develop symptoms for many years. Human Immunodeficiency Virus weakens the immune system and allows external substances, virus, or bacteria attack the human body. Once the immune system of the person is weakened, he/she becomes susceptible to multiple diseases. The HIV can be present in the bodily fluids such as blood, semen, vaginal fluid, and breast milk. The infection usually affects the internal body parts like lungs, central nervous system, and gastrointestinal system. (Griffith, Moore, Yoder & Pederson, 2006, p.381). As mentioned earlier, the victim may or may not show symptoms at the initial stage of HIV infection. It depends on the health and habits of the individual how soon the infection may progress to AIDS. In the same way, many of the initial symptoms might be misdiagnosed as flu or other mild illnesses. Therefore, identifying the infection is not easy unless the person undergoes specific medical tests and diagnosis. However, there are certain symptoms in common such as fever, headache, muscle and joint pain, sore throat, and diarrhea. In addition to these initial symptoms acute fatigue, weight loss, respiratory and skin infections, swollen lymph glands, genital changes, night sweats, mouth sores and acute diarrhea also might make the patient’s condition highly repulsive. (Griffith et al, 2006, p.381). There are varieties of tests to identify whether an individual is infected with HIV. The first type of tests includes HIV antibody test, P24 antigen test, and PCR test. The other

Should Computer Scientists Experiment More Essay

Should Computer Scientists Experiment More - Essay Example The article also states that experimentations can also be helpful to computer scientists if they need to understand other models applicable in the systems. In this regard, computer scientists feel that experimentations in their profession do not add value, but is time consuming and costly2. On the contrary, I think experiments are suitable for computer scientists because it helps them to discover new trends in their profession. This is because experiments do not have to be in the labs or organized settings, but can take place in seminars or workshops3. For instance, before the introduction of new software, computer scientists can model programs for trial basis. I also think experiments can be useful because computer science requires problem solving techniques. Considering this, experiments improve one’s ability to handle difficult situations that might exist when operating a computer application. The article is biased and does not offer the genuine reasons why computer scientists disregard experiments in their

Are Automotive Manufacturers more Socially Responsible?

Are Automotive Manufacturers more Socially Responsible? To what extent are car manufacturing firms operating in a more socially responsible manner when designing environmentally friendly cars? Abstract Social responsibility is one of the key differentiators between modern corporations, and is seen by many analysts as an antidote to the past few years trend towards the demonisation of corporate institutions. The recent economic crisis, in particular, has led many observers to argue that corporations that fail to address issues of social responsibility will struggle to survive. However, other observers question whether this phenomenon is anything more than a superficial consumer trend, and whether the world economy in general can seriously contemplate a corporate system in which the profit motive is subservient to the need for corporate social responsibility. This dissertation examines social responsibility in terms of the car manufacturing industry, and looks in particular at the question of whether or not the move towards environmentally friendly cars is anything more than a passing phase in an industry that is extremely sensitive to public opinion. Ultimately, the aim of the disse rtation is to determine whether or not corporate social responsibility within the car manufacturing industry is a genuine change, or whether it is simply a superficial response to a passing public trend. Introduction The concept of corporate social responsibility has been one of the dominant themes of the past decade, with consumer recognition of a corporations social responsibility being increasingly seen as a lucrative phenomenon. In the west, in particular, increasing levels of affluence have led to a trend that has seen more customers show willingness to pay more for products that are designed according to theories of social responsibility., and this shift has been nowhere more apparent than in the automobile manufacturing industry. This trend has inter-cut with a recognition (in some quarters) of the need to ensure a more environmentally-friendly approach to industrial production and consumption, and a number of corporations have secured dramatically enhanced public images through a focus on affordable but socially responsible products. However, critics argue that since the primary aim of these corporations is to increase their profits, the appearance of social responsibility has been more o f a cosmetic change than a substantial alteration of core business practices; many critics believe that corporations have, in most cases, merely become better at packaging their products as a more socially responsible, environmentally friendly alternative. Despite the recent financial crisis, the automobile manufacturing industry remains a bellwether for the global economy, and any genuine global industrial changes regarding social responsibility will likely be evident in the automobile industry at an early stage. This dissertation will examine the behaviour of car manufacturing firms and will ask whether they have genuinely become more socially responsible when designing environmentally friendly cars, or whether this is merely a superficial smokescreen designed to generate improved public exposure without leading to genuine changes in design and production philosophies. In particular, the difference between the industrys approach before and after the onset of the recent economic crisis will be examined, and these differences will be used to determine whether or not the move towards social responsibility represented a genuine change to production systems or was merely an attempt to capture the early twenty-first century zeitgeist. Furthermore, the dissertation will examine the extent to which social responsibility and environmental awareness have affected not only above-the-line (i.e. visible to the public) areas of the industry, but also below-the-line (i.e. internal corporate) systems; the d issertation will argue that firms can only be said to have adopted a greater level of social responsibility if their attempts to tackle this issue extend to below-the-line activities. The dissertation will use a series of core examples in order to determine both the hyperbole (i.e. the claims made to the public) and the core below-the-line changes that may, or in some cases may not, reflect the car manufacturing industrys more socially responsible, environmentally friendly approach to business and production. Literature Review Corporate Social Responsibility Social responsibility has been one of the key growth areas in recent years. Crane et al. (2007) define social responsibility, in the corporate context, as a companys ability to put aside the profit motive in order to perform tasks that have a beneficial effect not on the company itself in terms of capital but in terms of an entirely separate social group (Crane et al., 2007, p. 6). In this context, social responsibility can be seen as something that companies are expected to do unbidden, in much the same way as many people choose to donate their time and volunteer to help charities. In some ways, therefore, social responsibility can be seen as an attempt to anthropomorphise corporations by rendering them indebted to a cultural belief that they should act in a more ethical and moral manner. This is in some ways a cultural corrective to the idea of corporations as solely capitalistic, profit-orientated organisations. May et al. (2007) suggest that corporate social responsibility is a popular construct that seeks to imbue corporations with humanistic traits regardless of whether those traits are present or not (May et al., 2007, p. 118). In order for public recognition of these traits to be tangible, there must be a relative relationship between different corporations, so some must be seen to be exercising a great deal of social responsibility, while other must be seen to be doing very little. This is, in effect, the classic polar relationship between good and bad, and it allows consumers to associate themselves with positive, socially responsible companies purely by making certain purchasing decisions. Both sides therefore have a vested interest in social responsibility: consumers feel good if they reward socially responsible companies with their custom, and can use such purchases as a form of status symbol; corporations, meanwhile, can try to generate a larger, more loyal customer base. While some critics argue that social responsibility is a trend that will wax and wane according to various social and economic factors (May et al., 2007, p. 119), others believe that the emergence of social responsibility as a major business factor in the past decade is in fact a permanent change. Crane et al. note that growing awareness of environmental issues has led many people to recognise the importance of social responsibility (Crane et al., 2007, p. 10), and although the recent economic crisis may have led many to hold back on the spending that they would otherwise have directed towards socially responsible corporations, there still appears to be a broad consensus that social responsibility is one of the most important factors in modern business. Consequently, many companies have sought to strengthen their social policy credentials. Environmental Policy One of the key elements of social responsibility is the environment. For more than twenty years, there have been warnings about the effects of global warming. Many corporations choose to exhibit their social responsibility through one of a number of environmentally friendly policies: Reducing the environmental cost of production distribution. Reducing the environmental cost of consumption. Reducing the environmental cost of disposal. Using more environmentally-friendly materials. Reducing packaging and other superfluous elements of a product. Instigating specific environmentally-friendly technological elements. Funding research and education programs. Carbon and pollution off-setting. All of these options and more are regularly employed by companies that want to emphasise their environmental credentials. Large companies tend to focus on methods that require little more effort than throwing money at the problem, e.g. by funding research or off-setting their carbon emissions. However, some other companies are far more inventive, and genuinely try to reduce their environmental impact. Social Responsibility Aside from the environmental factors noted above, companies have found a number of ways of demonstrating their corporate social responsibility: Funding education programs. Providing services, e.g. transportation for school and disabled groups. Promoting volunteerism among their own workers. Donating money to charities. Working to eliminate abuse in the chain of production. The globalised corporate environment makes it more difficult than ever for companies to hide practices that might be unpopular in their domestic markets. For example, if a company seeks to use cheap labour in third world countries, it can make a short-term impact but will usually be exposed eventually. In other words, companies find it increasingly difficult to hide any non-socially responsible behaviour. The Car Manufacturing Industry The vast majority of manufacturers are global in terms of production facilities. The leading US and Japanese manufacturers, for example, tend to have dozens of factories, with at the top five companies all having at least one factory in each of North America, South America, Europe, Africa, Asia and Australasia. As such, the industry can be said to be truly global in terms of both customer reach and production. Furthermore, companies often experience great success in non-domestic markets, e.g. Japans Toyota also sells many cars in the US, and Germanys BMW is extremely popular in the UK; the only major exceptions to this rule are two of the three big US companies, General Motors (GM) and Chrysler, both of which have been criticised for their focus on the US market. The Impact of the Economic Crisis on the Car Manufacturing Industry All the worlds car manufacturers have in recent years suffered from the global economic downturn. In the US, the big three manufacturers Ford, Chrysler and General Motors (GM) have all come close to bankruptcy, and GM has been forced to file for chapter 11 bankruptcy protection. Around the world, companies have suffered similar problems, although in most cases not to the extent of the major US companies. In Japan, both Honda and Toyota have suffered heavy losses and have been forced to reconsolidate their core business areas. As a result, the automobile industry has been undergoing a period of immense uncertainty, and this has led many consumers to believe that they can no longer rely on the continued presence of the big names. Apart from the well-publicised problems for the big three US companies GM, Ford and Chrysler, almost every other major car manufacturer around the world has suffered a slump in profits in the past two years, and many have incurred legacy debts during this period that will impact upon their performance for decades to come. Toyota reported a massive $1.7bn loss (Fackler, 2008) and, like most other manufacturers, was forced to re-focus activities on core revenue streams. As one of the key figures in the green car revolution, Toyota had been investing heavily in environmentally-friendly cars, and had been happy to make such investments since it believe there would be massive financial benefits in the long run. However, the financial crisis crippled Toyotas ability to consider the long term implications of its current activities, and forced the company to focus on its core business. As Satoshi Hino notes, Toyota has long been one of the more adventurous companies when it comes to placing substantial industrial bets on future changes in the automobile market, but these have always been backed by strong performances in the companys core activities (Hino, 2005, p. 41). The companys move into electric and hybrid cars seen by many as a key element in the push towards greener automobiles has largely been financed by success in core diesel machines, with the pay-off for this front-end investment expected to arrive between 2010 and 2015. However, with the core business model threatened by double-digit year-on-year sales drops, Toyota was forced in 2009 to consolidate its activities and re-focus on the most profitable elements of its production line. This decision by the company served as dramatic proof that while there was clearly a high degree of confidence in terms of the potential for socially responsible cars to provide a significant pay-off in the medium to long term, this confidence was not strong enough to allow the company to rely on such vehicles during a time of economic crisis. Clearly, therefore, market forces are not yet dictating the need for social responsibility in sufficient numbers, or with sufficient support via purchasing decisions . Research Methodology Research Approach The research will take two key approaches: a questionnaire will be used to conduct primary research into consumer awareness of the question of social responsibility in the car manufacturing industry, and two case studies will be used to determine how two of the worlds biggest manufacturers GM and Toyota deal with this issue. In order to assess the impact of the social responsibility policies of both GM and Toyota, the questionnaires will be designed to measure the impact of such policies (or the lack of them) and the degree to which they change public opinion and have the effect for which they were designed. These questionnaires will be vital in terms of bridging the gap between the theory and reality, and will expose the limitations inherent in this approach. In order to increase the likely response rate, and to comply with ethical considerations regarding privacy, the questionnaires were left anonymous and respondents were told that they could ignore any individual questions that they would prefer not to answer. The secondary research will focus on two case studies, one looking at the leading US car manufacturer (General Motors) and the other looking at the worlds leading car manufacturer, by sales (Toyota). These companies have been chosen for specific reasons. General Motors (GM) has had a difficult economic history over the past two decades, almost filing for bankruptcy in the 1990s before going on to enjoy considerable success with a series of non-environmentally friendly cars (SUVs) while professing to hold social responsibility as a key philosophical point, and then suffering a massive collapse that resulted in the company filing for the fourth largest bankruptcy in US history (see chapter 4). Toyota, meanwhile, has made a name for itself with a series of advanced hybrid cars, but has also suffered during the recent financial crisis (see chapter 5). In other words, GM is seen by many as one of the worlds least socially responsible manufacturers, and Toyota is seen by many as one of the worlds most socially responsible manufacturers. By comparing and contrasting their approaches and fortunes, it should be possible to develop a clear understanding of the extent to which major car manufacturers have been socially responsible in pursuing an environmentally friendly agenda. Research Questions The research is based on the following key questions: To what extent do car manufacturing companies act with a high degree of social responsibility when designing environmentally friendly cars? How important is consumer behaviour to car manufacturers interest in social responsibility? Do consumers drive companies behaviour, or vice versa? What different approaches to the subject of environmentally friendly, socially responsible cars have been taken by different companies? How has the recent economic crisis affected manufacturers interest in social responsibility? Is social responsibility progressing according to narrative trends? Is this a major change to business, or merely a passing trend? Research Limitations Any research project contains inherent limitations. If these limitations are ignored, they do not go away; rather, they linger and negatively impact the reliability of the overall project. Consequently, the best approach is to recognise these limitations from the start and to work to ensure that they are factored out of the equation as much as possible. As Saunders et al. note, its only by recognising the limitations of any research program that the problems that always affect any research project can be brought into the open, addressed and contextualised and, in some cases, turned into positives (Saunders et al., 2009, p. 51). The research limits of this project are as follows: Social responsibility is an inherently subjective matter. Something that is socially responsible in the view of one person may be socially irresponsible in the view of another. Many of the relevant subjects, such as global warming, are not universally recognised. Its therefore important to reflect the fact that there is ongoing debate. There is insufficient time and space to analyse the entire market. Therefore, key examples must be selected for the case studies. As noted in 3.1, the subjects for these case studies were chosen for very specific reasons. Questionnaires must be brief and simple to understand, yet they must also focus on the key points. Persuading respondents to fill in questionnaires can be difficult. All these limitations can be overcome, to various extents. The subjectivity inherent in the research subject is in fact relevant to the continuing social, cultural and political debates regarding the extent to which car companies should, and can, adopt socially responsible roles; some critics argue that this can only be achieved if consumers adopt socially responsible approaches to their purchasing patterns, which will inevitably force corporations to adapt to face this trend. Similarly, the continuing debate over global warming although settled in many peoples view continues to cause debate in many parts of the world. Finally, the limitations of time and space mean that the case study subjects must be analysed extremely closely, and the choices of company must be made carefully. Results Analysis Response 200 questionnaires were sent out. The expected response rate was 40-50%, as per the suggestion by Saunders et al. that any questionnaire-based research project that prompts between a third and a half of targets to respond can be said to have performed averagely (Saunders et al., 2009, p. 102). In the event, 81 questionnaires were returned, representing 40.5%, which is just within the expected range. This gives a statistically relevant sample group. Demographic Information Demographic details are important in research concerning attitudes to consumer activity and the environment, since both of these factors can impact upon an individuals view of these issues. Question 1 concerned the age of the respondents: How old are you? The majority of respondents were in their teens and twenties, with a total of three quarters being under 40. This makes the questionnaire more relevant in terms of analysing the attitudes of younger people. The second question concerned the occupation of the respondents. It was decided to provide broad categories rather than to request specific details. For one thing, this emphasised the confidentiality and privacy of the research, and for another it allowed for easy and effective categorisation of answers: What is your occupation? Around two thirds of the respondents were employed, self-employed or in part-time work, with the rest being students, retired or unemployed. Awareness of Social Responsibility among Car Manufacturers The next question asked respondents if they believed the car manufacturing industry, as a whole, to be socially responsible. A brief explanation was appended to this question, defining social responsibility as an awareness of their impact on society, including the environment, and their efforts to ensure that this impact has a positive rather than a negative effect: How responsible do you think car manufacturers are? An overwhelming majority (67.9%) considered car manufacturers to be either not very or not at all responsible. Breaking these results down according to age and occupation gave the following results: Appreciation of manufacturers social awareness, broken down by age range Clearly, levels of appreciation appear to be at least partly linked to age, with these levels peaking for individuals in their fifties. There are numerous possible reasons for this, including: Media exposure: different age groups are exposed to very different media forms and sources, each of which will likely carry very different stories concerning manufacturers levels of social awareness. Learned behaviour: older respondents will have spent longer living in a time when many of the relevant issues, particularly environmental impact, were not considered. Environmental awareness: some of the answers may be influenced by a lack of belief in the various arguments concerning the environment and, in particular, the car industrys contribution to global warming. Clearly, therefore, awareness of social responsibility is a dynamic factor that reflects a number of different viewpoints, and this factors is by no means viewed the same by different age groups. The clear correlation between age and awareness indicates that manufacturers must ensure that they operate multiple simultaneous social responsibility programs if they are to reach all these groups. However, the next question sought to determine whether or not it was strictly necessary for the manufacturers to try to appeal to everyone, and asked how important social responsibility is to purchasing decisions. First, in terms of the overall response, the result was as follows: How important is a manufacturers social responsibility for you when choosing what car to buy? Almost half (48.1%) claimed that social responsibility was either very or quite important, with just over half (51.9%) claiming that it was not very or not at all important. Given the relatively small sample group for this research project, the difference is small enough to be statistically irrelevant, and broadly indicates a 50-50 split in terms of opinion on this subject. However, looking at the results in terms of an age-related breakdown results in a very different set of results: Importance of social responsibility of manufacturers, by age The data shows a clear depreciation of the importance of social responsibility for older consumers, although there is evidence of an increase for consumers in their 50s and above. In order to determine a link between awareness of social responsibility in the industry and the importance of social responsibility in purchasing decisions, the results from figures 4 and 6 were then combined: Importance, and awareness, of social responsibility in the car manufacturing industry There is clearly an inverse relationship between awareness of social responsibility as a factor in the industry, and belief in the importance of social responsibility. For example, younger people are most likely to believe that social responsibility is an important factor when making purchasing decisions, but are the least appreciative of any efforts that have so far been made. To an extent, this can be seen to be a matter of perception, but theres also clearly a problem for the industry in terms of persuading parts of the consumer base that its intentions are genuine. In order to measure the degree to which various manufacturers have succeeded in their aim of seeming more socially responsible, respondents were next asked whether they thought the industry had become more socially responsible over the past decade: Do you think the car industry has become more socially responsible over the past decade, less socially responsible, or it has stayed mostly the same? The vast majority of respondents believe there has been no real change, strongly suggesting that either the message from the manufacturers has not got through to the public, or that there is a deep level of cynicism in terms of whether the public believe that the rhetoric has translated into genuine action. Finally, respondents were given a range of options and were asked to indicate which they believed were most important in terms of social responsibility. They were asked to tick two or three options, with the aim being to allow them to indicate the elements of corporate social responsibility that were deemed most important: Most important elements of social responsibility Clearly, the vast majority of consumers overwhelmingly equate social responsibility with environmental issues. The only other factor to come close to this in terms of relevance was making donations to charitable causes, which to an extent also involves the environment. Social responsibility is not purely about the environment, and encompasses a range of other activities that can improve society. However, for the consumers canvassed for this research project, environmental issues were by far the most important, and its therefore possible to argue that the environment has overtaken all other elements of social responsibility and has become the single most important issue. Although manufacturers could fight against this perception and attempt to focus attention on other factors, the best approach might be to accept that when it comes to social responsibility, most consumers overwhelmingly focus on the environment. Case Study 1: General Motors (US) Background General Motors (GM) is the largest US car manufacturer, and the second largest in the world (after Toyota) (Trott, 2009). The company relies heavily on four key brands: Chevrolet, Cadillac, Buick and GMC. Each of these brands has a distinctive presence in the US market, but critics have argued that GM has lacked focus on the non-US markets, leaving it particularly vulnerable to domestic turmoil and economic volatility. In 1994, GM came close to bankruptcy following a $4.5bn loss, but cost-cutting measures and management changes ensured its survival. The company was one of the key instigators of the huge rise in sales for sports utility vehicles (SUVs) in the 1990s, a trend that was highly lucrative for GM but which resulted in criticism from environmental campaigners. Between 1998 and 2001, GM and Ford vied for the top spot in the US market, primarily through massively increasing sales in the SUV market. However, the downturn which followed the September 11th 2001 attacks saw GM suff er particularly hard, even compared to Ford, with the latter at least having a strong European heartland on which to rely during difficult trading conditions in the US. Nevertheless, GM bounced back and by 2005 was recording strong sales figures and was eyeing major expansion into overseas markets. However, the recent economic crisis virtually crippled GM, as well as its two key domestic rivals, Ford and Chrysler. GM lost $38.7bn in the 2007 fiscal year (Wearden, 2009), and an almost 50% drop in sales. The following year, GM predicted that it would run out of money in mid-2009 without a substantial re-financing program, and called for government help. In November 2008, the company joined with Ford and Chrysler in formally requesting help from the US government in order to stave off bankruptcy. Even in the context of the financial crisis, this move was massive, since it represented the genuine possibility of the USs three major car companies going bust almost simultaneously. Although the US government, under outgoing president George W. Bush, was initially reluctant to provide money at a time when many other businesses also had legitimate claims for government help, in December 2008 a bridging loan was finally offered. Despite numerous attempts to cut costs and reorganise the co mpany over the next six months, in June 2009 GM filed for chapter 11 bankruptcy protection. After Lehman Brothers, Worldcom and Washington Mutual, this was the fourth largest bankruptcy filing in US history. Eventually, on July 10th 2009, the US government helped to finance a new company, NGMCO Inc., that took on the majority of the old GM assets. The old GM changed its name to Motors Liquidation Company, and the new Vehicle Acquisition Holdings company changed its name to General Motors Company, thereby bringing GM back to life. The new version of GM is mostly owned by the US government, while the old GM Motors Liquidation Company continues to go through the process of the bankruptcy filing. Social Responsibility Both the old and the new GM have been involved in programs to emphasise their social responsibility. Since 1996, GM has financed the Safe Kids USA Buckle Up program, designed to encourage children to use seatbelts. The company has also contributed to a consortium that has donated over $1.2bn to fund education for engineering graduates, a scheme that has recently been extended worldwide. GM has also donated more than $200m in the past decade to charitable causes, and has supported both Democratic and Republican presidential candidates often simultaneously. The companys more recent philanthropic activities include a new global aid program (GM, 2009) and a number of smaller, local community projects designed to improve provisions mostly for children in areas surrounding the companys main factories. These projects have, for the most part, been maintained despite the continued financial uncertainty and the chapter 11 bankruptcy proceedings that took place in mid-2009. GM has also launched a major program called I Am GM, designed to showcase the companys strong workplace diversity policies. The program involves placing adverts in newspapers and magazines, and on television, in which GM employees from different ethnic backgrounds talk about their pride in the company. As well as reinforcing the idea of GM as an equal opportunities, ethnically diverse employer, the campaign is designed to show how GM works towards engineering a higher degree of diversity in society. Linked to this program is the companys renewed focus on safety, which has seen not only improvements designed to help children in the event of an accident, but also high-profile campaigns to reinforce the companys vehicles in order to make them withstand bigger crashes. The Buckle Up program has been maintained, and GM has expanded this campaign since 2008 by taking the message to schools around the US. The company claims that corporate responsibility is about more than just words its an acknowledgement that our actions shape our reputation (GM, 2009). Environmentally-Friendly Technology During the 1990s, a number of scandals saw the company accused of poor environmental management, including an accusation that sediments have been stored in unsafe conditions. In 2006, GM was one of a number of manufacturers from around the world named in a suit brought by the State of California over the issue of pollution. The case was dismissed a year later, but the damage to GMs reputation had already been done. In 2008, the Political Economy Research Institute (PERI) ranked GM 18th on its list of the USs worst polluters, giving the company a toxic score of 73,248, set against the no. 1 polluter, E.I. du Pont de Nemours, which scored 285,661 (PERI, 2008). Meanwhile, in the same year, the Union of Concerned Scientists (UCS) ranked GM 7th out of the worlds largest car manufacturers